An integrated winter hydrology monitoring system for croplands in cold climates

Winter hydrology in croplands, particularly in cold climates, has been recognized as a critical factor influencing nutrient movement and greenhouse gas emissions. This study addresses the critical gap in the comprehensive monitoring of winter hydrological processes in croplands located in cold regions. An integrative field winter hydrology monitoring system was developed, and a case study was conducted in Quebec, Canada. This system enabled the effective monitoring of crucial winter hydrological parameters such as soil ice content, snow water equivalent, winter subsurface drainage, and winter evapotranspiration, which were essential for understanding the water movement in various physical states within snowpacks, frozen soil, and the broader winter hydrological cycle. The late-winter to early-spring snowmelt period was most susceptible to data gaps because of harsh and rapidly changing field conditions. The equipment required for the winter monitoring system was estimated to cost USD 195,738 in 2023.The proposed winter hydrological monitoring system could serve as a prototype for future winter hydrological monitoring in agricultural landscapes, improving the quality and quantity of field data available for future modelling, observational, and theoretical hydrological studies for croplands during the winter season in cold climates.