Longitudinal links between executive functions and motor skills: A cross-lagged analysis

Executive functions and motor competence are critical, intertwined, developmental factors in childhood. Although general motor competence and general executive functions seem to be interrelated, the reciprocal and longitudinal relation between their specific sub-components remains unclear and underexplored. The purpose of the present study was to examine the longitudinal, bi-directional associations between different aspects of executive functions and motor competence in school-aged children, over a one-year interval. Participants were N = 343 children (55.1% girls), aged 8-12 years at baseline (Mage=9.68, SD=1.08 years), whose motor competence was assessed via the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (walking backwards, moving sideways and jumping sideways) and a dribbling ball task via the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2, whereas their executive functions were assessed using three computerised tasks. Specifically, inhibitory control was measured with the Attention Network Test, cognitive flexibility with the "How many- What number" task and working memory with the Digits Backwards task. To examine the longitudinal associations between the key variables, cross-lagged models were applied to the total sample and separately for boys and girls. Age, BMI, and sex were included as covariates. Benjamini-Hochberg corrections were performed to control for multiple comparisons. Significant prospective associations were revealed only in the direction from motor skills to executive functions; in the other direction, no pathway survived correction. Similar results were observed for boys and girls, with motor skills emerging as significant predictors of later executive functions, although the specific paths differed. In conclusion, the motor-driven direction of this association is highlighted.