Reproductive Tract Prolapses in Cattle: Pathophysiology, Risk Factors, Therapeutic Management and Prevention—A Narrative Review of Current Evidence

Reproductive tract prolapses in cattle include vaginal prolapse, sometimes with cervical involvement, and uterine prolapse. These are clinically distinct disorders with different timing, mechanisms, urgency, prognosis, and management priorities. This narrative review examines the literature published primarily from 2015 to August 2026 and retains older primary studies where they offer more direct bovine evidence. Vaginal prolapse is mainly a late-gestational disorder described in association with pelvic tissue relaxation and mucosal exposure; causal contributions of proposed mechanical factors and the magnitude of recurrence remain uncertain. Uterine prolapse is a postpartum emergency that requires rapid evaluation of the cow and uterus, protection of exposed tissue, complete replacement of the uterus, and correction of shock, hemorrhage, or hypocalcemia when present. Direct bovine evidence is sparse; population denominators and comparative treatment studies are particularly scarce, and many management practices rest on case series or clinical consensus. Therefore, recommendations are interpreted according to the supporting evidence: observational data, case-based evidence, expert consensus, extrapolation from related postpartum disease, or biologically plausible mechanisms. The review identifies unresolved questions, including recurrence quantification, genetic and metabolic risk, prognostic indicators, comparative efficacy of retention techniques, antimicrobial decision-making, and long-term reproductive outcomes. This evidence-informed synthesis supports practical clinical decisions while defining priorities for prospective studies on bovine reproductive tract prolapses.