A multidimensional spatial analysis of the relationship between the built environment and loneliness: evidence from Tehran, Iran

This study examines the spatial relationship between the built environment and loneliness across Tehran’s 22 districts using an integrated framework combining systematic review, geospatial analysis, and statistical modeling. The research data consist of survey responses from 4,749 residents, along with geospatial indicators derived from official datasets. Built environment indicators were initially identified through a systematic review using the PRISMA framework and subsequently reduced to three principal dimensions—public service access, housing and cultural amenities, and transportation and traffic—using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). These dimensions were incorporated as independent variables in an Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression model. The results indicate a statistically significant relationship between built environment characteristics and loneliness (R 2 = 0.578; Adjusted R 2 = 0.507; p < 0.01). Among the dimensions, housing and cultural amenities exhibit the strongest negative association with loneliness, followed by public service access, transportation and traffic. Spatial patterns reveal substantial intra-urban inequalities, with northern districts characterized by more favorable environmental conditions and lower levels of loneliness, whereas southern and southwestern areas show the opposite pattern. The results of spatial autocorrelation analysis confirm the absence of significant spatial dependence in the model residuals. The findings of this study provide a valuable evidence base for urban planners, policymakers, and urban designers to identify areas more vulnerable to loneliness and to prioritize evidence-informed urban interventions. They also underscore the importance of considering loneliness when planning and evaluating built environment policies and urban development projects.