Emerging nanomaterial and microfabrication techniques for wearable and implantable bioelectronics: Comprehensive review

Wearable and implantable nanoelectronics demand the heterogeneous integration of transducers, analogue front-ends, wireless power and data links, and hermetic encapsulation on substrates that remain mechanically compliant and biostable in vivo . Progress in wearable and implantable bioelectronics has been enabled by co-optimisation of material systems, process windows and packaging architectures with the capability to maintain stability under coupled mechanical, electrochemical, and thermal stresses. Nanoscale and two-dimensional semiconductors expand the design space for low-power transduction, but they impose stringent requirements on defect density, contact resistance, and encapsulation-induced strain after transfer to elastomeric substrates. This present work surveys nanomaterials and microfabrication strategies that address this systems-level requirement and complement existing material-class surveys organising the field along co-design axis of material, fabrication process, encapsulation and tissue interface. Additionally, the review presents a novel cross-material performance benchmark that compares carrier mobility, tensile-strain limit, limit of detection, encapsulation WVTR, fabrication-to-application suitability and regulatory pathway. The scope of this review is restricted to skin-mounted, intracutaneous, and intracorporeal medical devices reported between 2018 and 2026.