Carbon black-based e-textiles: a review of fabrication techniques and functional outcomes

The demand for electronic textiles (e-textiles) integrating functional materials has increased rapidly over the past decade. These textiles can be fabricated by incorporating sensing devices into textile structures or by engineering the textile itself to function as a sensing element. However, the use of yarns and fabrics as conductive media often faces challenges related to durability and insufficient conductivity, restricting device sensitivity and long-term performance. To address these limitations, recent studies have explored incorporating functional nanomaterials into textiles to enhance electrical performance. Among these, carbon black (CB) has emerged as a cost-effective, scalable conductive material because of its ability to form conductive networks, low cost, and good process compatibility. Integration techniques including printing, painting, coating, solution impregnation, filament spinning, electrospinning, composite molding, and dyeing have been explored for fabricating CB-based e-textiles, demonstrating resistance to laundering and mechanical deformation. Conductivities ranging from 1.24 × 10 -5 to 4 × 10 2 S/m have been reported for CB-only systems, while hybrid CB networks achieve conductivities up to 1.5 × 10 5 S/m. CB-based e-textiles have been explored for physiological monitoring, humidity sensing, electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, semiconducting components, Joule heating, and other wearable applications. This study summarizes recent advances in CB-based e-textiles, covering 17 major fabrication categories and their functional outcomes. Key challenges, including CB agglomeration, durability, and long-term operational stability, are critically discussed alongside potential solutions, commercialization prospects, standardization requirements, and future research directions. This review highlights the potential of CB-based e-textiles while identifying key challenges that must be addressed for commercial implementation.