Biology, ecology, and integrated management of Helopeltis spp.: A systematic review

The tea mosquito bug ( Helopeltis spp.; Hemiptera: Miridae) is one of the most damaging pests of tropical and subtropical agriculture in 32 countries, inflicting damage on high-value crops, including tea, cashew, cocoa, and guava. Its wide geographical distribution, strong polyphagy infesting more than 100 host plant species, and ability to thrive across varied microclimates have facilitated frequent outbreaks, resulting in yield losses of 40-50% and significant quality deterioration. This review synthesizes information from 99 peer-reviewed studies identified through a PRISMA-based systematic search, complemented by bibliometric mapping, to elucidate the biological, ecological, and management dimensions of this species complex. Helopeltis biology is characterized by high fecundity, overlapping generations, and marked phenotypic plasticity, whereas population dynamics are governed by host phenology, humidity, and moderate temperatures. Although natural enemies, particularly Oecophylla ants, reduviid predators, and egg parasitoids ( Telenomus cuspis ), provide substantial suppression, their effectiveness is often undermined by the intensive use of broad-spectrum insecticides. Current management predominantly depends on chemicals augmented by cultural practices; however, increasing pesticide resistance, climate-driven range expansion, and the lack of truly resistant cultivars pose major challenges. Integrated Pest Management approaches that emphasize threshold-based interventions, conservation biological control, and selective biopesticides offer more sustainable pathways. Emerging molecular tools, including RNA interference and CRISPR-based strategies, hold promise for targeted suppression and host resistance, although substantial gaps remain in their field delivery and adoption. This systematic review highlights the need for coordinated transdisciplinary initiatives to develop climate-resilient management frameworks that would reduce chemical dependence while ensuring crop productivity.