Toward Low-Carbon Seawater Desalination: Integrating Thermal and Membrane Technologies, Renewable Energy, and AI Optimization with Life-Cycle Assessment

Seawater desalination can only be sustainable if it cuts energy use, membrane fouling, brine discharge, and water cost. This review compares thermal and membrane technologies against these four challenges. RO supplies 70 to 80% of desalinated water at 3 to 5.5 kWh/m3, against 6.5 to 12 for MED and vapor compression and 13.5 to 25.5 for MSF, and it usually gives the lowest water cost, though energy prices and brine rules shift this. Thermal processes still yield purer distillate. A life-cycle appraisal structured by ISO 14040 and 14044 finds that energy drives most RO emissions, that brine recovery lowers impacts, and that low-carbon heat or different criteria weights can reverse technology rankings. Hybrids target recovery and scaling: RO–MSF and NF–RO have commercial or pilot cases, whereas MSF–MED and MD-based options rest on simulations and pilot work. AI models now optimize energy use, forecast fouling, and monitor water quality, but rarely link thermal, brine, and life-cycle stages. Priorities are fouling-resistant membranes, renewable-powered hybrids, brine minimization, and joint AI and life-cycle assessment.