) under two successive harvest cycles. Results demonstrated stable irrigation performance, uniform nutrient distribution, and reliable operation on solar power. Biomass production confirmed the system capability to sustain plant growth under continuous operation. TOTEM provides a scalable, low-cost platform for vertical farming with applications in urban food production, research, and education, particularly in resource-limited or off-grid environments.
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Borstel et al. (2026) studied this question.
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