Comparative analysis of chemical composition and antioxidant activity of ethanol extracts from Multi-Origin Plantaginis semen using HPLC and GC-MS

semen (PS) from four Chinese regions (Heilongjiang, Jiangxi, Inner Mongolia, and Anhui). Jiangxi PS exhibited the highest moisture and crude protein, whereas Anhui samples showed the highest crude ash, fat and key minerals (Mg, Fe, Mn). Inner Mongolia PS contained the highest total phenolics, flavonoids, and four major glycosides (plantamajoside, luteoloside, verbascoside, isoverbascoside), whereas Jiangxi PS was richest in geniposidic acid. A total of 91 volatile compounds with distinct regional profiles were identified by GC-MS. Alkanes predominated in Heilongjiang, alkenes in Jiangxi, acids in Inner Mongolia, and other compound categories in Anhui. Inner Mongolia extracts demonstrated the strongest antioxidant capacity, correlating with their high phenolic content. These findings provide a scientific basis for quality assessment and value-added development of PS based on geographical origin.