Generalizable dose denoising using diffusion transformer framework for pencil beam scanning proton therapy

Background and purpose: Intensity-modulated proton therapy (IMPT) enables conformal dose delivery for head and neck (H&N) cancers. However, its sensitivity to inter-fractional anatomical changes motivates online adaptations, where rapid and accurate Monte Carlo (MC) dose calculation remains a major bottleneck. Low-statistics MC simulations reduce computation time but introduce noise. This study aimed to develop a diffusion-transformer framework to recover high-statistics dose distributions from noisy MC simulations. Materials and methods : A diffusion-transformer-based dose denoising framework was developed. Eighty H&N patients were used for training and additional 10H&N patients and 30 patients with lung, breast, and prostate cancers (10 per site) were used for evaluation. Noisy and high-statistics dose maps were generated using MCsquare. The model was trained using noisy dose maps and CT images as inputs and high-statistics dose maps as ground truth, with mean squared error, residual, regional mean absolute error (MAE), and dose-volume histogram (DVH) losses. Performance was evaluated using MAE, 3D gamma passing rates, and DVH indices. Results: Mean whole-body MAE ranged from 0.08 ± 0.06 to 0.20 ± 0.11 Gy (Relative Biological Effectiveness, RBE) (RBE = 1.1) across test cohorts. Mean whole-body 3%/2 mm gamma passing rates ranged from 95.8 ± 0.8% to 97.6 ± 0.9%. DVH indices from high-statistics and predicted dose distributions showed close agreement for clinical target volumes and organs of interest. Conclusions : The diffusion-transformer-based framework denoised low-statistics MC dose distributions. Despite being trained on H&N data, the model generalized to lung, breast, and prostate cohorts without retraining.