Emerging Technology-Supported Intercultural Learning for Cognitive, Attitudinal, and Behavioral Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Three-Level Meta-Analysis

Emerging technologies are increasingly used to support intercultural learning, yet evidence on the distinct effects of artificial intelligence (AI), augmented reality (AR), and virtual reality (VR) remains limited. This systematic review and three-level meta-analysis synthesized 17 studies published from 2020 to July 2026 (77 effect sizes) to examine cognitive, attitudinal, and behavioral outcomes. The overall effect was large and significant (Hedges’ g = 0.965, 95% CI [0.580, 1.350], p < .001), although heterogeneity was substantial. AI-supported interventions also showed a significant positive pooled effect (g = 1.150, 95% CI [0.744, 1.555], p < .001). AR showed a significantly larger estimated effect than VR (β = −1.481 for VR relative to AR, p = .017), but this difference was not robust to excluding one AR study. Academic level (F (1, 75) = 17.27, p < .001) and sample size (F (2, 74) = 3.873, p = .026) were significant moderators, with larger effects in K–12 and larger-sample studies. However, these exploratory comparisons involved uneven technology distributions and only two K–12 studies. Outcome domain did not significantly moderate effects. Sensitivity analyses supported the stability of the overall pooled effect. The findings indicate that emerging technologies can improve intercultural learning, while better-balanced comparative studies are needed to identify which technological approaches are most effective.