Biogenic synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Pergularia daemia leaf extract: Characterization and biomedical applications

The green method of synthesizing nanoparticles (NPs) is a cost-effective, eco-friendly, and biocompatible method for various biomedical applications. This study aimed to synthesize Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO 2 NPs) from the aqueous extract of Pergularia daemia leaves and evaluate their physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, and biomedical applications. The synthesized TiO₂ NPs displayed a distinct UV–Visible absorption peak at 357 nm, and FTIR analysis validated the presence of plant-derived functional groups and Ti O vibrations. XRD examination indicated a crystalline mixed phase of anatase and rutile, with rutile being the dominating phase at 58.65 wt% and anatase comprising 41.35 wt%, with an average crystallite size of 32 nm. FE-SEM demonstrated primarily spherical to quasi-spherical NPs with an average size of 114.29 ± 42.64 nm, whereas HRTEM validated the presence of highly crystalline NPs averaging 30.80 ± 9.79 nm, exhibiting clear lattice fringes. DLS assessment revealed a hydrodynamic diameter of 188.75 nm, and a zeta potential of −44.68 mV suggested favorable colloidal stability. Raman spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy corroborated the crystalline architecture and surface chemical makeup. BET research indicated a distinct surface area of 29.4 m 2 /g and an average pore size of around 40 nm. TiO₂ NPs demonstrated antioxidant properties, presenting DPPH and ABTS scavenging with an IC₅₀ value of 73.38 and 42.66 ± 1.57 μg/mL, respectively, alongside minimal hemolysis (1.97% at 1 mg/mL), as well as antibacterial, antifungal, and antibiofilm efficacy. The NPs exhibited little toxicity in Artemia nauplii and zebrafish embryo models, no observable chromosomal changes in the assessed human blood assay, and pro-angiogenic effects in the chick chorioallantoic membrane assay. In summary, these results indicate that P. daemia -derived TiO₂ NPs have advantageous physicochemical characteristics, biocompatibility, and a range of biological functions, underscoring their promise as versatile nanomaterials for biomedical uses.