Religion, football, and reconciliation: evidence from Israel

This study examines the substitution between religious observance and secular leisure through the case of Israeli football games held on Shabbat, a holy day in Judaism. Although Jewish religion prohibits work on Shabbat, many top-tier games occur on Shabbat, generating tension between observant and secular camps. Using data from 1629 games and accounting for selection bias, we find that Shabbat games attract roughly 10% fewer spectators. The results suggest that losses from observant fans outweigh gains from secular ones. The findings highlight how religious norms can constrain participation in secular social activities, with implications beyond sports.