Material use and its relationship with per capita income. A panel data analysis at the global level

Global use of materials has significantly increased over recent decades, causing a wide range of environmental and social concerns. In this study, we use the latest available data from the UN database on global material flows to investigate the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis for two widely used material flow indicators, Domestic Material Consumption and Material Footprint, for a dataset of 147 countries. Using both semiparametric and parametric methods over a longer period than any previous study (1970–2019), we find no evidence in support of the EKC hypothesis. A concerning result is that material-income elasticities are higher after 1989, implying that the situation has not improved. We conclude that major changes have not yet occurred in the income-material use relationship and that strong policy measures remain necessary to reduce material consumption.