Micro- and Nanoplastics Pollution in Indian River Systems: Sources, Impacts, Detection, and Management Perspectives: A Sustainable Approach

The pervasive infiltration of microplastics (MPs; <5 mm) and nanoplastics (NPs; <1 µm) into freshwater ecosystems has emerged as a critical environmental concern in India. Major river systems such as the Ganga, Yamuna, and Hindon are experiencing alarming levels of plastic contamination due to rapid urbanization, industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, and ineffective waste management practices. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the forms, sources, and pathways of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) in Indian rivers and evaluates their ecological impacts on aquatic organisms, including ingestion, bioaccumulation, and trophic transfer. Emphasis is placed on the toxicological risks posed by MPs and NPs as carriers of heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, and pathogenic microorganisms. The article critically examines existing analytical techniques—such as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy paired with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry—for the detection and quantification of MNPs, highlighting their limitations in low-resource settings. Additionally, the review explores India’s regulatory frameworks, such as the Plastic Waste Management Rules and the Namami Gange Mission, and assesses the gaps in enforcement and technological readiness. Future directions are discussed, including the development of standardized detection protocols, biodegradable alternatives, and cross-sectoral policies integrating environmental monitoring, waste valorization, and public engagement. A multidisciplinary approach is essential to mitigate the ecological and human health implications of plastic pollution in India’s riverine ecosystems.