Integrating national defence requirements into offshore wind planning: Evidence from Poland and the Baltic Sea

The development of offshore wind energy in the Baltic Sea is taking place in a rapidly changing security environment, where the expansion of renewable energy infrastructure increasingly intersects with national defence requirements. Although previous studies have identified conflicts between offshore wind development and military activities, less attention has been paid to how defence impacts are systematically assessed and incorporated into offshore wind planning and permitting. This article examines these interactions using Poland as the principal empirical case, while evidence from other Baltic Sea states provides regional context and the United Kingdom serves as an external comparator. The analysis considers both operational limitations, including reduced access to maritime areas, restrictions on manoeuvre, sensor performance and the use of effectors, and opportunities associated with surveillance, monitoring and dual-use applications of offshore infrastructure. The study employs a qualitative multi-method research design combining a comprehensive desk-based review of academic literature, legal and policy documents, technical and institutional reports, qualitative content analysis, semi-structured interviews with ten senior Polish naval officers providing an expert defence perspective, participant observation, and analysis of the practical application of the Polish defence-impact assessment methodology. This methodology, commissioned by the Polish Ministry of National Defence and developed by the Polish Naval Academy, constitutes the principal object of analysis rather than a new framework proposed by this article. The findings demonstrate that defence-impact assessment provides a structured mechanism for identifying effects on military capabilities, evaluating their operational significance, considering cumulative impacts and determining whether technical or organizational mitigation can preserve required defence capabilities. The Polish case further shows that effective integration of defence requirements into offshore wind development depends on early and continuous civil–military coordination, clearly defined institutional responsibilities, information exchange and the incorporation of assessment results into planning and permitting decisions. The study contributes to offshore energy governance research by demonstrating how an institutionalised defence-impact assessment can connect military operational requirements with offshore wind planning while supporting the management of potentially competing energy and national security objectives.