Decompression Theory and Models for Diving Operations: A Review of Principles, Algorithms, and Applications

Decompression sickness (DCS) has been a persistent safety concern in diving operations since its recognition among 19th-century caisson workers.This review consolidates the theoretical foundations and historical development of decompression theory, from Dalton's and Henry's laws to representative algorithms used in contemporary diving practice.Dissolved-gas models, including Haldane's tissue-compartment theory, Workman's M-value framework, Bühlmann ZH-L algorithms, and Thalmann exponential-linear models, along with the gradient factor approach, are reviewed together with bubble-based approaches, including the thermodynamic model, varying permeability model, and reduced gradient bubble model.Their core assumptions, mathematical formulations, and operational implications are examined in a unified framework.A comparison of a 40-m air dive with a 30-min total bottom time showed that total decompression time differed by up to 3.6-fold among algorithms, reflecting differences in model assumptions, conservatism settings, and implementation-specific characteristics rather than any inherent superiority of a particular algorithm.The review further discusses implications for dive planning under dynamic marine conditions and integrated diver and remotely operated vehicle operations.This narrative review provides a consolidated reference for informed algorithm selection and safer dive planning across recreational, technical, commercial, military, and marine salvage and rescue diving contexts.