Economic and Energy Demand Assessment of Nanomaterial Production for Polymer Composites: A Comparison of Virgin and Waste-Derived Materials

The transition towards a circular economy requires sustainable solutions for converting waste streams into value-added resources. In this context, nanomaterial incorporation into polymers can significantly enhance material properties, resulting in composites with superior performance compared to conventional materials. However, the energy intensive production and high cost of most nanomaterials remain barriers especially for sustainable applications. Despite widespread recognition of these issues, comparisons of organic and inorganic nanomaterials alongside their virgin and waste-derived counterparts remain limited from the perspective of production-related energy demand and cost. Furthermore, the economic performance of different nanomaterials for the valorization of recycled plastics has not been widely investigated, leaving uncertainty regarding the economic viability of nanocomposite processing as a recycling route. Here, we provide a cradle-to-gate assessment of the energy demand and production cost of various nanomaterials to be used for polymer composites. The results of this study emphasize the superior environmental and economic performance of inorganic nanomaterials, namely nanoclay and a filler processed from construction and demolition waste, over organic cellulose nanofibers. Furthermore, recycled feedstock for nanomaterial production offered both economic and environmental advantages over their virgin representatives, supporting the transition towards a circular economy. Although composites filled with nanomaterials increased the production cost and energy consumption of pure polymers, the impact of using inorganic nanomaterials remained modest. Further research should focus on functionality-based environmental and economic assessments to enable a comprehensive evaluation of different nanomaterials for their intended applications.