English dominance in Eswatini’s language-in-education policy: A critical analysis of policy

This study, grounded in game theory and the economics of language, critically examines contradictions in Eswatini’s language-in-education policy and the implications for classroom practice. The study addresses the question: To what extent do school-level practices align with the provisions of the national language-in-education policy? Adopting a qualitative policy analysis approach, the study draws on multiple sources of empirical data, including policy document analysis, questionnaires, classroom observations and semi-structured interviews with teachers, head teachers and school inspectors. Data were collected conveniently from 64 participants across seven rural and semi-urban schools (five primary and two secondary schools) in Eswatini. The findings reveal a persistent disjuncture between policy intentions and implementation. While the policy promotes additive bilingualism and the use of siSwati as a medium of instruction in early education, classroom practices overwhelmingly favour English as the de facto language of teaching and learning. Drawing on a game theoretic framework and the economics of language perspective, this study demonstrates how key stakeholders, including teachers, schools and policymakers, make rational linguistic choices that prioritise English due to its perceived socio-economic value and thus reinforce its dominance despite official policy provisions. The study argues that the language-in-education policy in Eswatini functions as a contested resource shaped by competing incentives rather than as a neutral regulatory instrument. In the absence of consistent institutional support, clear implementation guidelines and adequate teacher training, policy goals remain largely aspirational. The findings further suggest that systemic inconsistencies are not merely implementation failures, but are embedded in the broader political and economic logic that sustains English dominance in the education system.