Why some countries lead and others lag: The political economy of promoting battery electric vehicles

This study examines how macro-socioeconomic and institutional factors shape government policy orientations toward battery electric vehicle (BEV) promotion within the broader context of technological transitions. Using a political economy lens, we identify eight key factors — car industry, car infrastructure, car culture, oil and gas industry, energy sector, income per capita, air pollution and health, and environmental awareness — through an extensive literature review and a Delphi-based case study of Australia. A structured descriptive synthesis across 12 diverse countries indicates that BEV policy promotion is weak where multiple high-impact factors, such as a resistant auto industry, powerful oil and gas interests, and an entrenched car culture, converge unfavourably. Conversely, where environmental consciousness, pollution concerns, supportive infrastructure, and industrial ambitions align, as in Denmark, China, and Germany, pro-BEV policies are more robust. The study contributes to the analysis of low-carbon technological transitions by developing a diagnostic framework for assessing how differing macro-socioeconomic and institutional conditions relate to BEV policy orientations. Composite scores range from −10 to +21 across the sample, with 5 countries classified as supportive, 3 as ambivalent, and 4 as constraining; for example, Denmark exhibits strongly supportive conditions, while South Africa reflects strongly constraining structural factors. This offers a pragmatic tool for policymakers to assess national contexts and for researchers to interpret transition pathways, highlighting how both formal structures and informal political dynamics—such as lobbying, legacy industry influence, and cultural attitudes—shape the trajectory of sustainable mobility.