Determinants of striking and defensive behaviour in four South African medically important snake species

African snakes display a range of defensive behaviours. However, there are limited quantifiable data on specific retaliatory behaviours for most species in response to threat-eliciting stimuli and the factors that might influence defensive behaviours, particularly in instances of human-snake conflict. We investigated defensive striking behaviour of four African snake species: puff adder ( Bitis arietans ), black mamba ( Dendroaspis polylepis ), snouted cobra ( Naja annulifera ) and Mozambique spitting cobra ( Naja mossambica ), including the impact of snake body size and sex on striking behaviours and strike performance. Individuals were presented with a fake arm model to simulate a human arm, and behaviours were recorded in two sequential trials. Of the 14 D. polylepis individuals tested, ten defensively struck at the hand and eight of these individuals bit the hand. Three of the seven N. annulifera struck with only two resulting in bites and of the six B. arietans individuals, four struck the hand and three bit the hand. None of the 21 N. mossambica individuals struck or bit the hand. Body size and sex were not significant predictors of striking behaviour. Defensive behaviours were generally higher for individuals undergoing a second trial. Strike performance results showed that B. arietans displayed the highest strike accelerations over short distances, indicating high strike effectiveness at close range. This likely contributes to its status as the species responsible for most snakebite incidences in South Africa. The results revealed that snakes exhibit a flight response when provided the opportunity to escape, but if persistently harassed, they will strike and bite in defence.