Lesson design through the lens of variation theory: comparative insights from Sweden and Türkiye

Purpose This study aims to investigate how primary school mathematics lessons are implemented in Sweden and Türkiye when teaching the same object of learning and deepen understanding of how instructional design is shaped by contextual conditions and professional practices. Design/methodology/approach Grounded in variation theory, the analysis focused on how teachers vary and make discernible aspects of the object of learning through instructional enactment. A cross-case design was employed to initially compare instruction in 16 primary mathematics lessons, eight each from Sweden and Türkiye, to analytically identify four shared content areas: mental arithmetic, algorithms, problem-solving, and statistical graphs. Swedish teachers followed the model of learning study and planned lessons collaboratively, while Turkish teachers had no prior knowledge of variation theory and enacted lessons based on national subject plans (e.g. textbooks and curriculum documents). Teachers' enactment of the object of learning during instruction was analyzed using the framework of variation theory to identify patterns in how aspects of the object of learning were made visible. Findings The results revealed significant differences in the dimensions of variation of the object of learning in instructional design. Swedish teachers employed the dimension of contrast and meta-representational talk to emphasize conceptual discernment, while Turkish teachers more often used the dimension of fusion to promote procedural fluency by varying several aspects simultaneously. Research limitations/implications Variation theory can contribute to research on lesson study and learning study by providing a framework for examining how contextual conditions shape the way teachers design and teach lessons. It can also help researchers understand how different teaching practices make specific aspects of the content visible to learners. Practical implications In decentralized contexts, collaborative models like Learning Study can help teachers focus on the critical aspects of the object of learning. In centralized systems, curriculum materials and lesson plans can embed explicit patterns of variation to balance conceptual and procedural emphases. Social implications The study shows that both centralized and decentralized systems can make objects of learning discernible through different instructional patterns. This underscores the importance of context-sensitive approaches to instructional improvement. Originality/value This study contributes novel insights into how national education structures shape teachers' abilities to design lessons, with implications for research, policy, and practice.