Production constraints and policy influences on the global commercialisation of lignocellulosic biofuels and future prospects

Lignocellulosic biomass is increasingly recognised as a sustainable feedstock for biofuel production because of its abundance, estimated global availability of approximately 200 × 10 9 tons annually, and potential to reduce dependence on fossil fuels. Conversion technologies have achieved varying levels of maturity: bioethanol production and anaerobic digestion have reached Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 9, whereas syngas fermentation remains at TRL 6–7. Global liquid biofuel production has reached approximately 175–180 billion litres in 2024, with bioethanol accounting for about 75% and biodiesel 25%. The United States and Brazil dominate the bioethanol market, contributing approximately 50% and 39% of global production, respectively. Despite technological advances and pilot- and commercial-scale demonstrations, widespread biorefinery deployment remains constrained by technical, economic, policy, and infrastructural barriers. This review critically evaluates global progress in biorefinery development and commercialisation, focusing on technological advances, policy interventions, and enabling factors supporting biofuel deployment. It further examines the principal barriers to large-scale implementation and proposes strategies for accelerating the commercialisation and long-term sustainability of lignocellulosic biorefineries.