Effects of cryopreservation on transcriptome, epigenome, and proteome of mammalian gametes and embryos

Infertility affects 10–15% of people in the US and is now recognized as a disease by the American Medical Association. In vitro fertilization (IVF) and non-IVF assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) account for approximately 5% of deliveries in the US. Cryopreservation of gametes and embryos has become an integral component of ARTs, which are widely regarded as safe by clinicians and laboratory personnel. However, an increasing number of studies report that cryopreservation induces adverse effects on the transcriptome, epigenome, and proteome of mammalian gametes and embryos. Yet, we are not aware of a concise review that summarizes the omics findings of all relevant studies. The PRISMA guidelines were followed, and a PubMed search was conducted using several relevant keywords. All relevant publications available until April 2026 were considered; however, only peer-reviewed original research articles were included. A total of 135 published studies were analyzed, and more than 90% of them (122/135) across diverse mammalian species, including humans, indicate that cryopreservation induces numerous aberrations in the transcriptome, epigenome, and proteome of gametes and embryos. Moreover, some of these studies presented results showing a persisting impact of currently used cryopreservation methods on the transcriptome, epigenome, and proteome of the resulting fetuses and offspring. Cryopreservation of gametes and embryos is associated with aberrant changes in the transcriptome, epigenome, and proteome. Further research is warranted to understand the underlying mechanisms and thus to develop preventive interventions.