The role of energy policies in the global economic integration− ecological footprint linkage: evidence from Türkiye

Purpose Environmental sustainability is a crucial global goal, and the ecological footprint is a comprehensive indicator of environmental pressure. This study aims to investigate the determinants of Türkiye’s ecological footprint over the 1990–2022 period, focusing on energy intensity, energy-efficiency R&D expenditure, renewable-energy R&D expenditure and economic globalization. Design/methodology/approach The ecological footprint−energy−globalization nexus for the Turkish economy is analyzed using the ARDL bounds testing approach. Long-run coefficients are estimated and their robustness is assessed using fully modified ordinary least squares (FMOLS) and dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) estimators. Findings The empirical results indicate that higher energy intensity is associated with a higher ecological footprint, whereas economic globalization is negatively associated with ecological footprint intensity. The effects of energy-efficiency R&D and renewable-energy R&D expenditures are mixed. Energy-efficiency R&D expenditure does not exhibit a statistically significant long-run association with ecological footprint intensity, while the negative association between renewable-energy R&D expenditure and ecological footprint intensity is found only in the ARDL specification and is not supported by the FMOLS and DOLS estimates. In contrast, the negative association between economic globalization and ecological footprint intensity is more consistently observed across the long-run estimators. These findings suggest that policies aimed at reducing energy intensity may be relevant for environmental sustainability in Türkiye, while the environmental effectiveness of energy-related R&D expenditures requires further evidence. Originality/value This study contributes to the literature by jointly considering energy intensity, disaggregated energy-related R&D expenditures and economic globalization as determinants of ecological footprint intensity in Türkiye. By combining ARDL with FMOLS and DOLS robustness estimators, the study provides policy-relevant evidence on the heterogeneous and potentially context-dependent environmental implications of energy-related R&D expenditure and economic globalization in an emerging economy.