Safety in military organizations –A scoping review

Safety culture, safety climate, and safety behavior have all been examined in military settings, but the research remains fragmented. Many studies focus mainly on climate measures or isolated subdomains, which can overlook broader structural and cultural influences. A more integrated understanding is needed of how these concepts relate and support effective safety in military organizations. Of 31 eligible studies identified, with three set aside after quality appraisal, this scoping review brings together findings from 28 empirical studies to explore how safety is practiced and maintained at individual, group, and organizational levels. The review identifies several recurring factors linked to effective safety behavior, including targeted training, adaptive leadership, open communication, and psychologically safe environments for learning. Although safety climate assessments are widely used to capture perceptions of safety, relying too heavily on them may hide important power relations, cultural norms, and system-level constraints shaping frontline behavior. A repeated issue in the literature is the gap between formal safety policies and the adaptive practices needed in real operations, especially in combat or other high-risk situations. Since most available evidence comes from peacetime and training settings, caution is needed when extending these findings to operational environments. The review proposes a tentative conceptual framework in which leadership style, operational realism, and learning systems interact to influence safety-oriented behavior. Rather than making firm causal claims, it suggests that more flexible, learning-oriented models may explain observed safety dynamics better than strictly compliance-based approaches. Future research should address gaps in gender, team processes, measurement validity, and longitudinal change.