Beyond binary models of pubertal development: gender identity, gender typicality, sexuality, and attitudes toward sex characteristics

A binary understanding of gender presumes normativity within gender facets and congruence across facets, such that deviation from the norm in one aspect of gender is accompanied by similar deviations in others. In contrast, the mosaic framework posits that individuals may possess unique combinations of both gender “normative” and non-normative characteristics. We examined these competing frameworks using recollections of pubertal experiences from 1,797 cisgender and 119 transgender and non-binary young Israeli adults. Participants completed the Gender Multi-dimensional Questionnaire—Puberty (GMQ-P), a new retrospective measure assessing gender identity, own- and “other”-gender typical behaviors, sexual orientation, and feelings toward pubertal bodily changes. We first evaluated the psychometric properties of the GMQ-P, identifying seven distinct factors with good internal consistency, measurement invariance across groups, and known-groups validity. Mapping variability within each gender facet, we found that many cisgender individuals deviated from binary-assumed norms and there was substantial overlap between gender groups. Across gender facets, the results supported the mosaic over the binary framework: the factors showed mostly small-to-medium correlations, cluster analysis identified six profiles with different combinations of “normative” and non-normative mean factor scores, and many individuals possessed both “normative” and non-normative factor scores. Together, these findings reveal substantial heterogeneity within gender/sex/uality groups that is obscured by group comparisons and correlational approaches. This heterogeneity highlights the importance of moving beyond binary preconceptions when studying gender and when supporting adolescents of all genders through puberty.