Odour preferences of children and adults across four diverse cultures in Africa, Asia, Europe, and Oceania

Odour perception plays a crucial role in various processes, yet the extent to which odour preferences are universal or shaped by cultural and ecological contexts remains debated. While some studies report substantial cross-cultural agreement in odour pleasantness, others highlight considerable variability. To address this question from a novel perspective, we collected data from 394 children and adults (aged 3–81) across four distinct cultures (Hadza, Pakistani, Dani, and Scottish). Participants rated the pleasantness and familiarity of 11 odours (Fish, Garlic, Butter, Ginger, Thyme, Cinnamon, Banana, Peach, Strawberry, Jasmine, Butanol). We observed both variability and agreement in odour pleasantness ratings across cultures, but overall, there was a similar level of agreement across age groups within each culture. Furthermore, the most pleasant odours (Jasmine, Strawberry, Peach) were rated more consistently across cultures than the most unpleasant ones (Fish, Garlic, Butter). Finally, familiarity was strongly and positively associated with pleasantness. These findings suggest that while some universal consensus in odour evaluation exists, ecological and cultural influences, as well as individual differences, may all play a substantial role in shaping olfactory perception.