Extracellular vesicles of pathogenic fungi: biogenesis, immune regulation and therapeutic potential

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) encapsulate a variety of biologically active molecules, such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, and have been recognized as crucial mediators of intercellular communication. The production of EVs has been observed across numerous fungal species. Upon infection by pathogenic microorganisms, EVs contribute to the regulation of various pathophysiological processes and are instrumental in the activation and modulation of host immune responses through the transport of molecules derived from either the pathogen or the host. Nonetheless, several aspects of fungal EV biology remain inadequately understood, particularly regarding their potential applications as biomarkers for clinical diagnosis and as therapeutic targets for fungal infections. This review consolidates the current understanding of fungal EVs, with a particular focus on their biogenesis and secretion, their roles in host-pathogen interactions, and their potential applications as diagnostic and therapeutic tools for fungal infections. This includes their translational potential as diagnostic biomarkers, antifungal drug delivery systems, and fungal vaccine candidates. Additionally, the review explores emerging technologies such as single-vesicle analysis, multi-omics profiling, EV engineering, and synthetic and semisynthetic vesicular systems. The discussion aims to offer new perspectives and directions for the early prevention and treatment of microbial infections, while establishing a foundation for further fundamental research and the clinical translation of EV-based strategies.