Implications of informal settlement characteristics for household water and sanitation services in Kakamega Municipality, Kenya

Informal settlements are commonly characterized by concentrated populations, inadequate infrastructure and poor living conditions that may constrain household water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services. Anchored on Urban Political Ecology (UPE) theory, this study examined the implications of informal settlement characteristics for household WASH services in Kakamega Municipality, Kenya. A cross-sectional research design was used, targeting 1,202 households in five informal settlements, namely, Amalemba, Kambi Somali, Makaburini/Alkarim, Masingo and Juakali. The settlements were purposively selected, while 291 households were proportionately allocated and selected through simple random sampling. Key informants and focus group participants were purposively selected, with snowball sampling used to identify additional key informants. Data were collected using structured household questionnaires; key informant interviews (KIIs), focus group discussions (FGDs), field observations and document review. Quantitative data were analyzed using frequencies, percentages, the chi-square test of independence and Cramer's V. Qualitative data were analyzed thematically. The findings showed inadequate infrastructure, closely spaced housing and poor environmental conditions. Environmental pathways had the strongest associations with household WASH services, particularly solid-waste disposal (χ² = 196.45, df = 2, p < .001, V = .79) and flooding/poor drainage (χ² = 188.08, df = 2, p < .001, V = .77). Economic and social pathways were also significantly associated with WASH services. Accessibility, reliability and affordability were substantially constrained, with 72.5% of households requiring more than 30 minutes obtaining water, 95.2% experiencing service interruptions sometimes or often, and 64.6% reporting WASH services as unaffordable or very unaffordable. The study concludes that household WASH conditions are associated with interconnected settlement characteristics, and their environmental, economic and social pathways. The study recommended integrated settlement upgrading focused on water supply, sanitation, drainage, solid-waste management and physical access, alongside stronger community participation, affordable and reliable service provision, and settlement regularization.