Economic lock-in and local environmental justice in plastic-waste-fuelled tofu production in East Java, Indonesia

Background Plastic-containing waste provides low-cost process energy for small producers but creates environmental-health concerns for workers and nearby communities. Small tofu enterprises may rely on these fuels when cleaner alternatives remain financially or operationally inaccessible. This study examined East Java tofu production through environmental-justice perspectives, focusing on risks, affordability, livelihoods, and local governance.Methods An exploratory mixed-method rapid assessment included 150 tofu workers, three community leaders, and three local authority representatives. Worker surveys were summarised descriptively and examined using exploratory Mann–Whitney U tests and Spearman rank correlations. Open-ended responses were thematically coded and integrated with stakeholder accounts to assess barriers, governance conditions, and transition feasibility.Results Plastic or mixed waste was reported by 124 workers (82.7%), while 64.7% recognised smoke-related health risks. Safer production was supported by 86.7%, yet only 26.0% agreed that existing rules were enforced. Alternative-fuel costs remained prominent, furnace-proximate workers reported higher risk-perception scores, and stakeholders described weak enforcement and livelihood dependence.Conclusions Plastic-waste-fuelled tofu production revealed an awareness–feasibility gap linking recognised risks with constrained alternatives and weak enforcement. Reported concerns reflected perceptions and stakeholder accounts without direct measurements of pollutants, exposure, or health outcomes. Transition strategies should combine affordable cleaner fuels, staged enforcement, occupational guidance, community participation, and practical environmental monitoring.