The Dimensionality of Cognitive-Linguistic Skills in Chinese-English Bilingual Children: A Developmental Perspective

We examined the dimensionality of four cognitive-linguistic skills (phonological awareness, morphological awareness, orthographic awareness, and vocabulary knowledge) among Chinese-English bilingual children (N = 1295, Mage = 8.61, SD = 1.46). We tested five theoretically motivated models within each language and proficiency group (emerging vs. advanced bilinguals) to examine the measurement structure of these skills. Results revealed a common three-factor solution (phonological, orthographic, and morpho-lexical dimensions) in L1 Chinese across proficiency levels. In L2 English, a phonological-morphological dimension emerged for emerging bilinguals, while a morpho-lexical dimension emerged for advanced bilinguals, with an orthographic awareness dimension for both groups. Across both languages, morphological awareness and vocabulary consistently clustered into a shared morpho-lexical dimension in advanced bilinguals, reflecting increasing integration of cognitive-linguistic processes. These findings highlight the dynamic nature of bilingual literacy development and provide a developmental framework for understanding how cognitive-linguistic skills become increasingly coordinated across languages.