Reconstructing Thinking Process Indicators in Learning: An Integrative Synthesis of Vygotsky, Piaget, and Thorndike

Research on thinking processes in learning has developed across theoretical traditions, yet related constructs are often examined separately. This fragmentation makes it difficult to develop an integrated understanding of how learners direct attention, process knowledge, draw inferences, and reflect on and regulate their thinking. This study synthesizes the literature on thinking processes in learning and develops an integrative conceptual framework linking core thinking processes with supporting conditions and developmental and social contexts. A systematic literature review using PRISMA-based selection procedures examined Scopus-indexed articles published between 2021 and 2026. Of 288 identified articles, 11 met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed through data extraction, thematic analysis, and narrative synthesis. The synthesis identifies three core processes: attentional regulation, knowledge processing and inference, and reflection and control. These processes operate within supporting conditions, including prior knowledge, task demands, self-efficacy, learning experiences, language, and social support, and are shaped by developmental and social contexts. The findings distinguish core thinking processes from constructs that function as supporting conditions. The proposed framework conceptualizes thinking as a dynamic system of interrelated processes rather than a fixed sequence of stages. It provides a conceptual basis for developing operational indicators and subsequent empirical validation.