Eyes-free map learning: comparing cognitive map development from visual and nonvisual digital maps

Although spatial learning is traditionally visual, nonvisual senses can convey similar information. This study investigated whether visual and nonvisual map learning produce functionally equivalent cognitive maps in sighted individuals. Thirty adults learned three information-matched maps using haptic, auditory, and visual modalities before completing egocentric wayfinding and allocentric map re-creation tasks. Results showed that nonvisual learning supported accurate performance statistically similar to visual learning on all measures, with a preference for haptic maps. However, visual learning generally produced small but reliable performance advantages. These findings support growing evidence that visual and nonvisual spatial learning can produce similar mental representations.