Game theoretic modeling of blockchain–enabled dual-channel collection in closed-loop supply chains

Blockchain technology has emerged as an innovative digital solution aimed at enhancing transparency, traceability, and trust within closed-loop supply chains, particularly in the domains of remanufacturing and recycling operations. This study formulates a Blockchain-enabled Closed-Loop Supply Chain model that incorporates an original equipment manufacturer $$(M-R)$$ , a retailer-third party $$(R-3p)$$ , and a manufacturer-third party $$(M-3P)$$ . In light of Blockchain investment costs, privacy concerns, information transparency, and competitive dynamics in recycling, a Stackelberg game framework is developed to analyze optimal pricing strategies, collection decisions, and overall profitability. The research investigates the impact of collection competition and Blockchain-related parameters on supply chain performance. Through numerical analysis and sensitivity assessments, the findings reveal that the adoption of Blockchain technology enhances acceptance rates for remanufactured products and influences channel decision-making, whereas intensified competition in collection efforts tends to diminish individual collection performance. The results indicate that the $$M-R$$ model exhibits superior economic performance, while the $$M-3P$$ model demonstrates greater recycling efficiency in the context of intense competition. This research contributes theoretical insights and practical guidance for the design of sustainable Closed-Loop Supply Chains through the strategic integration of blockchain technology and optimized recycling channel selection.