A Physics-Informed dimensionless framework for densification in laser powder bed fusion

Purpose This study aims to propose a physics-informed framework to describe densification behavior in Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF). Design/methodology/approach A new dimensionless number, Π, combines absorbed laser energy, track and layer overlap and heat-transfer effects. The framework is evaluated using experimental data from several alloys. Findings The relative-density data follow a common relative density (RD)–Π trend and reveal clear densification regions, including lack of fusion, rapid densification, near-full density and excessive energy input. Machine learning results confirm that Π alone captures the dominant mechanisms governing densification. Originality/value The proposed framework provides a simple, physically meaningful and transferable tool for LPBF process design. It offers an alternative to conventional energy-density measures and purely data-driven models.