TIEROE: A Multidimensional Governance Framework for Inclusive Radio Frequency Spectrum Assignment in Developing Economies

Radio frequency (RF) spectrum has emerged as a strategic public resource underpinning digital transformation, broadband connectivity, artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystems, cloud computing, and next-generation wireless communications. As governments increasingly pursue digital economy objectives, spectrum governance has evolved from a purely technical regulatory function into a critical policy instrument shaping innovation, competition, economic development, and digital inclusion. Despite the widespread adoption of auction-based spectrum assignment mechanisms, concerns persist regarding their ability to balance economic efficiency with broader public-interest objectives, particularly within developing economies characterized by persistent digital inequalities and unequal market participation. The existing spectrum governance literature remains fragmented across technology adoption, resource capability, digital inclusion, and regulatory perspectives, providing limited guidance on how regulators can simultaneously promote efficiency, affordability, competition, equity, and universal connectivity. This study develops the Technology–Inclusion–Equity–Resource Capability–Organisation–Environment (TIEROE) framework. The TIEROE framework serves as a conceptual governance model and diagnostic tool intended to assist policymakers and regulators in the design, evaluation, and comparison of spectrum assignment mechanisms across multiple dimensions. A qualitative research design was adopted, incorporating a systematic literature review, analysis of policy and regulatory documents, and an international comparative assessment of spectrum governance practices. The findings reveal that effective spectrum governance is shaped by six interdependent dimensions: technology, inclusion, equity, resource capability, organisation, and environment. These dimensions collectively influence the extent to which spectrum assignment contributes to digital transformation and sustainable development outcomes. The study contributes to spectrum governance research by integrating previously fragmented theoretical perspectives into a unified framework. It provides policymakers with a practical governance tool for designing inclusive spectrum assignment mechanisms. The TIEROE framework extends existing technology adoption and digital inclusion theories and offers a foundation for future empirical research on spectrum governance within developing economies.