Understanding Socio-Cultural Factors of Kambo Use: Implications for Wildlife Conservation and Risk Mitigation

Kambo, a skin secretion from the Amazonian giant green frog ( Phyllomedusa bicolor ), is promoted as a traditional medicine for diverse physical and psychological disorders. Its growing popularity among non-Indigenous users worldwide raises concerns about adverse health effects, legal risks, and impacts on wild populations due to possible overexploitation and wildlife trafficking. Sociocultural factors influencing Kambo use remain poorly understood yet are crucial for mitigating risks and supporting conservation. This study uses qualitative and quantitative methods to examine motivations, deterrents, perceptions, beliefs, and practices of non-Indigenous Kambo users in Colombia, revealing that Kambo use is shaped by individuals' life histories and social contexts. Furthermore, five distinct user profiles were identified, ranging from “Chronically ill pragmatic users” to “Curiosity-driven users,” differing in motivations, frequency of use, and perceptions of Kambo. By elucidating these socio-cultural drivers, our findings provide empirical foundation for strategies to reduce public health risks, promote wildlife conservation, and promote governance of animal-based medicines. Understanding the diversity of user experiences is critical for developing targeted policies, outreach, and educational efforts that protect both people and the giant green frog.