Agroecological potential of einkorn (Triticum monococcum L.) in conventional, organic and biodynamic farming systems

The agroecological potential of einkorn (Triticum monococcum L.) was evaluated under three farming systems - conventional, organic, and biodynamic, over two contrasting growing seasons (2020 - 2022) in Southeastern Bulgaria. The study assessed the physiological plasticity, yield components, and natural resistance to the cereal aphid Sitobion avenae. Results indicated that while the conventional system showed higher photosynthetic rates and spike length under favorable conditions, the organic and biodynamic systems exhibited superior resilience during drought. Biodynamic farming consistently achieved the highest instantaneous water-use efficiency (iWUE), increasing from 5.57 in 2021 to 6.48 in 2022, and maintained significantly higher thousand kernel weight (TKW) (33.00 - 36.35 g). Yield dynamics revealed that under stress, the organic system outperformed the conventional one, which suffered a 28% yield decline. Aphid infestation remained well below the economic threshold across all cultivation systems, with the lowest densities recorded in biodynamic and organic plots. These findings position einkorn as a strategic crop for agroecological intensification, capable of sustaining stable yields and enhancing ecological regulation under climate variability.