Habitat suitability and lekking habitat use of the Greater Bird-of-Paradise (Paradisaea apoda) in human-modified landscapes of Papua

Context The Greater Bird-of-Paradise (GBOP, Paradisaea apoda) is an iconic endemic species of Papua, Indonesia, increasingly threatened by logging and oil palm expansion. Its habitat requirements remain poorly understood, with no spatially-explicit assessment available. Aims In this study we mapped GBOP habitat suitability across natural forest and oil palm landscapes in Boven Digoel District, South Papua Province, Indonesia; identified environmental and human drivers of distribution; compared general and lekking habitat use, and assessed conservation implications. Methods Systematic field surveys conducted during 2022–2023 yielded 59 georeferenced records that were used to compare general and lekking habitat use. After spatial thinning to reduce sampling bias, 33 records were retained for species distribution modelling (SDM). Twelve climatic, biophysical, and anthropogenic variables were used to assess drivers of GBOP occurence and habitat suitability. Key results GBOP occurrence data showed clear differences between general habitat use and lekking habitat. Lekking sites were associated with taller, structurally complex, and less-disturbed forest, whereas GBOP was also recorded in moderately-disturbed areas, indicating stricter habitat requirements for breeding. MaxEnt (MXD) produced the best SDM performance, identifying 79,901 ha (~12%) of the study area as suitable habitat, with 60% located within active logging concessions. The most influential predictors were distance to built-up areas, average canopy height, and relative humidity. Conclusions GBOP tolerates moderately disturbed habitats but relies on tall, structurally complex, and less-disturbed forests for breeding. Production landscapes have conservation value but cannot replace natural forest. Implications Conservation should prioritise protection of lekking sites, retaining high canopy cover, and maintaining connectivity. Spatial habitat models can guide protection, restoration, and biodiversity-friendly management of logging and oil palm landscapes.