Boosting Urban Vitality and Sustainability: Assessing Rail Transit Stations Through the Node-Place-Vitality (NPV) Model in Hangzhou, China

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) offers a strategic pathway toward sustainable urban construction. The Node–Place model, a classic analytical framework in TOD typology, provides the basis for assessing TOD performance. This study introduces a vitality dimension to extend the model, constructing a Node–Place–Vitality (NPV) model. We apply the NPV model to the Hangzhou rail transit system, evaluating TOD performance using indicators across three dimensions: node, place, and vitality. Then we classify the station types by K-means++ clustering. The results show that: (1) TOD development exhibits marked spatial inequality, with higher levels in central urban areas and along trunk lines; (2) the NPV model reveals synergies and imbalances among transport, land use, and vitality; (3) rail transit stations can be categorised into five distinct types, each with differentiated functional orientations. The NPV model provides a more integrated and dynamic framework for TOD assessment, supporting differentiated planning strategies and promoting sustainable urban development.