Prevalence, severity and factors exposing urban rock pigeons (Columba livia) to foot deformities in katima Mulilo, Namibia

Urban environments expose wildlife to anthropogenic hazards, including materials capable of causing physical injuries. Among urban birds, the rock pigeon ( Columba livia ) is highly adapted to urban environments. However, frequent reports of digit entanglement and foot deformities in these environments suggest that urban conditions expose birds to foot injuries. Despite widespread observations of “string foot”, quantitative assessments of deformity prevalence and severity across urban land-use types remain limited, particularly within African cities. This study assessed the prevalence and severity of foot deformities in rock pigeons across three land-use zones in Katima Mulilo, Namibia: the Central Business District (CBD), market areas, and residential areas. A total of 300 pigeons were visually inspected during systematic field surveys. Foot deformities were recorded as present or absent and classified into three severity levels (mild, moderate, severe). Forty-six (15.3%) pigeons exhibited foot deformities. The prevalence of foot deformities varied significantly among land-use categories, with the highest recorded in the residential areas (22.5%), followed by the CBD (12.4%) and least in the market areas (10.4%). Moderate deformities were the most prevalent injury category (60.9%), followed by severe (23.9%) and mild deformities (15.2%). Pigeons observed in residential areas had significantly higher odds of deformities compared with those in the CBD (OR = 2.05, p = 0.044). Fibrous wastes, which constitute the important potential sources of entanglement hazard, were prevalent in the environment of pigeons. Results of this study suggest that foot injury in urban rock pigeons varied across land-use types and highlight the potential role of human-derived materials on pigeon health in urban areas. Targeted management of fibrous wastes in the CBD and residential areas is recommended to reduce entanglement-related foot deformities, with emphasis on improved local waste handling and disposal behavior.