Graphene-Derived Nanomaterials for Wastewater Treatment: Bridging Laboratory Performance and Practical Feasibility

Rapid industrialization and urbanization have increased the discharge of complex pollutants into aquatic systems, posing significant environmental and public health challenges. Conventional wastewater treatment technologies often fail to remove trace contaminants such as pharmaceuticals, heavy metals, and emerging organic compounds. Graphene-based materials, including graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, and graphene quantum dots, have emerged as promising candidates due to their high surface area, tunable surface chemistry, mechanical robustness, and unique electronic properties, enabling diverse removal mechanisms such as adsorption, catalysis, and membrane filtration. Laboratory studies have shown that these materials can achieve superior pollutant removal efficiencies; however, their large-scale implementation remains limited, highlighting the gap between laboratory performance and industrial feasibility.This review provides a structured assessment of graphene-based materials for wastewater treatment. Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic literature review covering 2010–2024 was conducted, with emphasis on the latest 2025 studies addressing techno-economic and industrial feasibility. The review examines the types of graphene materials, their physicochemical properties, and functionalization strategies, followed by critical evaluation of their applications in removing various contaminants. Key research gaps, including aggregation, fouling, regeneration loss, toxicity, and lack of standardized protocols, are discussed. The techno-economic and industrial feasibility section analyzes production costs, scalability, energy requirements, and lifecycle considerations. Finally, future perspectives on AI-guided material design, smart membranes, and regulatory frameworks are outlined to bridge the gap between laboratory innovation and practical development.