Comparative environmental impact assessment of product authentication technologies in low- and high-throughput production systems

Product authentication technologies play a significant role in combating global counterfeiting, yet their environmental impacts remain underexplored. This study proposes a framework to assess the environmental impacts of three authentication technologies: Quick Response (QR) codes, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), and image-based solutions. The assessment uses primary data for image-based solutions and secondary data for QR and RFID solutions, enabling quantification of environmental impacts from hardware production and technology use. In addition, a break-even analysis is conducted for annual production under low- and high-throughput scenarios. The results show that the image-based solution is associated with a higher initial environmental footprint due to hardware-related material and energy demands. However, this technology outperforms QR codes and RFID in the use stage, as it does not require physical information carriers. A qualitative functionality discussion provides further technology comparison: image-based systems excel in accuracy, QR codes in cost efficiency and scalability, and RFID in bulk processing speed. These findings provide support for manufacturers seeking to balance sustainability and scalability. By incorporating hardware production and use stages in the assessment, this study addresses a critical gap in the assessment of authentication technologies and offers actionable insights for their sustainable implementation.