Sustainability assessment of heavy-duty trucks, part II: a multi-criteria comparison of alternative technologies

Heavy-duty road transport, a backbone of the global economy, is under growing pressure to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels while ensuring operational reliability. Complete electrification of this sector remains challenging, and a variety of alternative technologies are rapidly emerging. Decision-makers—including policymakers, fleet operators, manufacturers, and local authorities—must therefore navigate a complex landscape of options when planning the transition to more sustainable solutions. This study evaluates a representative set of truck technologies, including internal combustion engines powered by diesel, hydrotreated vegetable oil, natural gas, biomethane, and hydrogen, as well as mild hybrid diesel vehicles, battery electric trucks, and fuel cell electric vehicles focusing on Swedish conditions, with some reference to the broader European context. Using a multi-criteria assessment framework with 16 indicators spanning technical, economic, environmental, and social performance, the selected technologies were compared. Results show that battery electric trucks, despite higher capital costs, can achieve a total cost of ownership comparable to or lower than conventional diesel, hydrotreated vegetable oil, natural gas, or biomethane trucks, whereas hydrogen-based options remain substantially more costly. In terms of greenhouse gas emissions, biomethane trucks rank among the lowest-emission alternatives under waste/residue-based feedstock pathways, while the performance of battery electric and fuel cell electric vehicles depends strongly on electricity and hydrogen production pathways. Overall, the analysis provides a strategic overview of strengths, weaknesses, and trade-offs across technologies, while also clarifying key knowledge gaps.