Testing the limits of archaeological datasets: Neanderthal behavior during the MIS 6–MIS 5e glacial cycle indicates cultural flexibility

Understanding macroscale behavioral responses to climate change is a central, systemic question related to the expansions of early humans. Homo neanderthalensis serves as an ideal case, as this species endured multiple climatic cycles. We analyzed the Marine Isotope Stage 6–5e glacial cycle spanning ca. 191–116 ka BP in central and western Europe from an interdisciplinary perspective. Our representative dataset synthesizes paleoenvironmental evidence with archaeological indicators including stone tool typologies, procurement strategies, mobility patterns, and prey selection. Despite profound environmental shifts between glacial and interglacial conditions, Neanderthal behavior remains remarkably stable. This pattern suggests that their technological systems were highly versatile and that their behavioral strategies were sufficiently flexible to cope with diverse and changing environments. Finally, we discuss the limitations of the archaeological record across broad spatial and temporal scales, as well as the challenges quantitative approaches face in capturing the full range of Neanderthal behavioral variability, particularly as reflected in rare or exceptional finds.