Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare: Assessing Patient Protection Under Law No. 17 of 2023 and Article 28H, Paragraph (1) of the 1945 Constitution

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into healthcare presents significant legal challenges concerning patient safety, data protection, and medical accountability. This study examines the adequacy of Indonesia's constitutional and statutory frameworks in protecting patients receiving AI-assisted healthcare services and identifies regulatory measures necessary to strengthen legal certainty. Employing a normative juridical approach, the research analyzes Article 28H(1) of the 1945 Constitution, Law No. 17 of 2023 concerning Health, and Law No. 27 of 2022 concerning Personal Data Protection through statutory, conceptual, and doctrinal legal analysis. The findings demonstrate that existing regulations provide a substantive foundation for patient rights, informed consent, professional responsibility, and medical data confidentiality. However, significant regulatory limitations remain regarding algorithmic transparency, clinical validation, continuous performance monitoring, human oversight, and the allocation of liability among healthcare professionals, institutions, and technology providers. The study argues that these limitations reflect insufficient operational specificity rather than a complete legal vacuum. Accordingly, it proposes an integrated, risk-based regulatory framework incorporating AI-specific clinical safeguards, transparent decision-making, strengthened data governance, and clearly defined accountability mechanisms. This research contributes to the development of Indonesian healthcare law by demonstrating how existing constitutional guarantees and statutory obligations can be operationalized to ensure patient protection while supporting responsible AI innovation.