The Epistemology of Inclusive Islamic Education for Children with Special Needs: Classical and Modern Perspectives

This study aims to examine the epistemological foundations of Islamic Religious Education (PAI) for Children with Special Needs (CSN) by integrating inclusive education theology, classical Islamic thought, and modern educational theories. The study employs a library research method with a qualitative-interpretive approach. Data were collected from classical Islamic literature, academic books, and scholarly articles addressing inclusive education, disability, and adaptive learning. Data analysis was conducted through content analysis and comparative interpretation, comprising identification, categorization, comparison, and synthesis. The findings indicate that a theology of inclusive education can be grounded in rahmah (compassion), ‘adl (justice), karāmah (human dignity), and musāwah (equality). Epistemologically, Islamic Religious Education must shift from uniform instruction toward adaptive, flexible, and participatory learning that accommodates diverse ways of acquiring and expressing knowledge. The educational thought of al-Ghazali, Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Miskawayh, and al-Zarnuji can be reconstructed through dialogue with differentiated instruction and Universal Design for Learning. This study concludes that the theology of rahmah provides an epistemological foundation for equitable, humane, and responsive inclusive Islamic Religious Education.