The pharmacological, environmental, and biotechnological potential of Euphorbia tirucalli L.: From traditional knowledge to modern applications

Euphorbia tirucalli L. (Euphorbiaceae) is a succulent tree native to tropical Africa and widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions. Its latex contains phorbol esters, diterpenes, triterpenes, phenolic compounds, and enzymes, and the species has a long history of ethnomedicinal use. This interdisciplinary narrative review synthesises historical, ethnobotanical, phytochemical, pharmacological, toxicological, environmental, and biotechnological evidence, explicitly distinguishing traditional knowledge from findings derived from in vitro, in vivo, toxicological, and epidemiological studies. Reported biological activities include cytotoxic, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, molluscicidal, and enzymatic effects, with substantial variation associated with the plant material, geographical origin, season, solvent, and experimental model. Some findings are divergent or dose-dependent. Crude latex is biologically active and potentially toxic and should not be considered equivalent to standardised or purified preparations. Environmental and biotechnological applications, including biological control, phytoremediation, and enzyme-based processes, remain promising but insufficiently validated. Overall, E. tirucalli should be regarded as a scientifically relevant but complex biological resource whose future applications require standardised plant material, reproducible experimental evidence, and rigorous toxicological assessment.